Question and answers

Question and answers 

1. What is the best test method for the identification of typhoid fever?

The best test method for the identification of typhoid fever is blood culture. 

Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi. It is a serious and potentially life-threatening illness that is primarily spread through contaminated food and water. 

Symptoms of typhoid fever can include high fever, headache, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and rose-colored spots on the skin.

Blood culture is the most reliable test for the diagnosis of typhoid fever. During the test, a small sample of blood is collected and then incubated in a laboratory to see if the bacteria grow. It may take several days to get the results of a blood culture, and sometimes multiple samples may be needed to confirm the diagnosis.

Stool culture and urine culture may also be used to diagnose typhoid fever. Stool culture involves collecting a sample of stool and checking it for the presence of the bacteria that cause typhoid fever. Urine culture involves collecting a sample of urine and checking it for the bacteria. These tests may be useful in cases where blood culture is not possible or when the infection is in the early stages.

Serological tests, such as the Widal test, may also be used to aid in the diagnosis of typhoid fever. These tests look for antibodies to the bacteria in the patient's blood. However, serological tests can be less reliable than culture-based tests and should be used in conjunction with other diagnostic methods.

Overall, blood culture is the best test method for the identification of typhoid fever. However, a combination of tests may be needed to confirm the diagnosis and rule out other possible causes of the patient's symptoms.

2. What's FOB?

In medical terminology, FOB stands for "fecal occult blood" or "fecal occult blood test".

A fecal occult blood test is a type of medical screening test that detects the presence of hidden (occult) blood in the stool, which can be a sign of a variety of medical conditions, including colorectal cancer, polyps, and gastrointestinal bleeding.

The test involves collecting a small sample of stool and sending it to a laboratory for analysis. The laboratory then looks for the presence of hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells, in the stool sample.

FOB testing is commonly used as part of a routine health screening program for individuals over the age of 50, as well as for individuals with a family history of colorectal cancer or other risk factors for gastrointestinal bleeding. It is a non-invasive and relatively simple test that can provide valuable information about a person's health status.

3. What are pus cells?

Pus cells, also known as leukocytes or white blood cells, are a type of cell that is involved in the body's immune response to infections and other foreign substances.

Pus cells are typically found in pus, which is a thick, yellowish or greenish fluid that forms at the site of an infection. Pus is composed of a mixture of dead and living white blood cells, bacteria, and other debris.

When the body is fighting an infection, white blood cells are produced and sent to the site of the infection to attack and destroy the invading pathogens. As the white blood cells attack the pathogens, they can become damaged or destroyed, which can lead to the formation of pus.

In medical terms, the presence of pus cells in a bodily fluid or tissue sample is a sign of inflammation or infection. The number and type of pus cells present can provide valuable information about the underlying condition, and are often used to help diagnose and monitor infections, such as urinary tract infections, abscesses, and sepsis.

4. Bacteria are classified in to two groups base on their cell wall composition, name them.

Bacteria are classified into two groups based on their cell wall composition, which are:

1. Gram-positive bacteria: These bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which makes them appear purple or blue when stained with a crystal violet stain and iodine. 

Gram-positive bacteria retain this stain and do not lose their color when exposed to alcohol or acetone. 

Examples of gram-positive bacteria include Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Bacillus.

2. Gram-negative bacteria: These bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which is surrounded by an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides. 

Gram-negative bacteria appear pink or red when stained with crystal violet and iodine, but lose their color when exposed to alcohol or acetone. 

Examples of gram-negative bacteria include Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Pseudomonas. Gram-negative bacteria are often more resistant to antibiotics and immune system attacks than gram-positive bacteria due to the presence of their outer membrane.

5. What is Buffer solution ? 

A buffer solution is a solution that can resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added to it. 

It contains a weak acid and its corresponding conjugate base or a weak base and its corresponding conjugate acid. 

The buffer solution works by neutralizing any added acid or base through a chemical reaction that converts the added species into a less harmful form, thus maintaining the pH of the solution. 

Buffers are important in many biological and chemical processes, as well as in laboratory experiments where pH control is required.

6. What is the role of kidney in hematopoiesis?

The kidney does not have a direct role in hematopoiesis, which is the process of blood cell formation. 

However, the kidney produces a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO) that stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells. 

When the kidney detects a decrease in oxygen levels in the blood, it releases EPO into the bloodstream, which then travels to the bone marrow and triggers the production of red blood cells. 

Therefore, the kidney indirectly supports hematopoiesis by regulating the production of EPO.

7. What is the principle of the creatinine test?

The principle of creatinine test is to measure the levels of creatinine in blood or urine samples. Creatinine is a waste product that is produced by muscles and is filtered out of the body by the kidneys. The test measures the amount of creatinine present in the sample to determine how well the kidneys are functioning. 

The creatinine test works on the principle of the Jaffé reaction, which involves the reaction of creatinine with a chemical called picric acid in an alkaline medium. This reaction produces a yellow-orange color, which is proportional to the amount of creatinine present in the sample. The intensity of this color is measured using a spectrophotometer, which calculates the concentration of creatinine in the sample. 

The creatinine test is an important diagnostic tool used to evaluate kidney function, as high levels of creatinine in the blood or urine can indicate decreased kidney function. It is often used in conjunction with other tests, such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR), to assess kidney health.

8. What is the principle of the Gram Stain test?

The principle of Gram stain is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two main groups: Gram-positive and Gram-negative. The technique is named after Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed it in 1884. 

The principle of Gram staining involves the following steps:

1. A bacterial sample is spread on a microscope slide and allowed to dry.

2. The slide is then flooded with crystal violet, which stains all bacterial cells purple.

3. Next, a mordant (usually iodine) is added, which helps to fix the stain in place.

4. The slide is then washed with a decolorizing agent (usually alcohol or acetone), which removes the stain from some bacterial cells.

5. Finally, a counterstain (usually safranin or fuchsine) is added, which stains the decolorized bacterial cells a different color (usually red or pink).

The resulting coloration of the bacterial cells is dependent on the structure of their cell walls. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which holds onto the crystal violet stain even after decolorization, causing them to appear purple. Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer of peptidoglycan, which is surrounded by an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides. This outer membrane is dissolved by the decolorizing agent, causing the crystal violet stain to be removed from the cells, so they appear red or pink after being counterstained.

The Gram stain is widely used in microbiology to identify bacterial species, as well as to determine their antibiotic susceptibility. It is a simple and inexpensive technique that can quickly provide valuable information about bacterial cells.

9. RDW Calculation Formula

RDW stands for Red Cell Distribution Width, which is a measure of the variation in red blood cell size. It is usually reported as a percentage. The RDW calculation can be done using the following formula:

RDW = (Standard deviation of RBC volume / Mean corpuscular volume) x 100

In this formula, the standard deviation of RBC volume refers to the variation in the size of the red blood cells, while the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) refers to the average size of the red blood cells. The result of the calculation is multiplied by 100 to express the RDW as a percentage.

The RDW calculation is typically done as part of a complete blood count (CBC) test. A high RDW value can indicate a wide variation in red blood cell size, which can be a sign of certain medical conditions, such as anemia or vitamin deficiencies. However, it is important to note that a high RDW value alone is not diagnostic of any specific condition and should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and test results.

10. Why do males have more blood than females ?

Males do not necessarily have more blood volume than females. The amount of blood in a person's body is determined by various factors, including body size, weight, and muscle mass. On average, adult males are larger and have more muscle mass than adult females, which can result in a slightly higher blood volume. 

However, studies have shown that the difference in blood volume between males and females is relatively small, with males having only about 5-10% more blood volume than females. This difference is not significant enough to have a major impact on overall health or physiological processes. 

It is also important to note that blood volume can vary widely between individuals, regardless of gender. Factors such as hydration status, medical conditions, and medications can all affect blood volume. Therefore, it is not accurate to generalize that males have more blood than females.

11. What does hematology mean?

Hematology is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of blood and blood disorders. 

It includes the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases related to blood, such as anemia, leukemia, hemophilia, and other blood clotting disorders. 

Hematologists are medical doctors who specialize in the field of hematology and work in hospitals, clinics, and research centers. They use various laboratory tests and imaging techniques to diagnose and treat blood disorders.

12. Which medicine is best for stomach pain?

The best medicine for stomach pain depends on the cause of the pain. 

If your stomach pain is due to indigestion, over-the-counter antacids like Tums, Rolaids, or Maalox can help provide relief. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) like omeprazole or esomeprazole can be effective in reducing stomach acid production and relieving acid reflux. 

For stomach pain caused by inflammation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen or naproxen can be effective. However, NSAIDs should be taken with caution, as they can cause stomach ulcers and other digestive problems. I

f your stomach pain is severe, persistent, or accompanied by other symptoms like vomiting or fever, it's important to see a doctor to determine the underlying cause and appropriate treatment.

13. Its possible for the offspring to have A different blood group Apart from their parents?

Yes, it is possible for offspring to have a different blood group from their parents. The ABO blood group system, which is the most common blood group system, is determined by the presence or absence of antigens on the surface of red blood cells. These antigens are inherited from the parents, with each parent contributing one of two possible alleles (A, B, or O) to their child.

However, the ABO blood group system is not the only factor that determines blood type. There are other blood group systems, such as the Rh system, which can also affect a person's blood type. In addition, genetic mutations and variations can occur during the formation of the egg and sperm cells, which can result in an offspring having a different blood type from either parent.

It is also important to note that blood type inheritance can be a bit more complex than simple Mendelian genetics, so it is possible for a child to have a blood type that appears to be different from both parents, but can be explained by the inheritance of multiple alleles.

14. What is the best method for maleria parasite identification?

The best method for malaria parasite identification is through microscopic examination of blood smears. This involves staining a thin blood smear with a special stain, like Giemsa stain, and then examining it under a microscope for the presence of the malaria parasites. This method can help identify the species of the parasite, as well as the stage of infection.

Another method for malaria parasite identification is through rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). These are immunochromatographic tests that detect specific malaria antigens in the blood. RDTs are easy to use and do not require specialized equipment, making them useful in remote areas where access to laboratory facilities is limited.

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is another method for malaria parasite identification. PCR can detect very low levels of the parasite's DNA in the blood, and can be useful in cases where the parasite is present in very low numbers or is difficult to detect using other methods.

However, microscopy remains the gold standard for malaria parasite identification, as it is reliable, inexpensive, and widely available.

15. What is the difference between CYST OVA and TROPHOZOITE of parasites? 

The best method for malaria parasite identification is through microscopic examination of blood smears. This involves staining a thin blood smear with a special stain, like Giemsa stain, and then examining it under a microscope for the presence of the malaria parasites. This method can help identify the species of the parasite, as well as the stage of infection.

Another method for malaria parasite identification is through rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs). These are immunochromatographic tests that detect specific malaria antigens in the blood. RDTs are easy to use and do not require specialized equipment, making them useful in remote areas where access to laboratory facilities is limited.

PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is another method for malaria parasite identification. PCR can detect very low levels of the parasite's DNA in the blood, and can be useful in cases where the parasite is present in very low numbers or is difficult to detect using other methods.

However, microscopy remains the gold standard for malaria parasite identification, as it is reliable, inexpensive, and widely available.

16. A new born baby high WBC and billirubin what reasons? 

A high white blood cell count (WBC) in a newborn baby can indicate several things. One possible reason is that the baby is fighting an infection, as the body produces more white blood cells to fight off invading pathogens. However, other factors such as stress, inflammation, or certain medications can also contribute to a high WBC count.

A high bilirubin level in a newborn baby can indicate a condition called jaundice. Jaundice happens when there's too much bilirubin in a baby's blood, which can cause yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes. This condition is common in newborns and usually goes away on its own within a few days. However, severe jaundice can be dangerous and requires medical attention.

It's important to note that a high WBC count and high bilirubin levels in a newborn baby can have many possible causes, and they may not necessarily be related. It's best to consult with a pediatrician for a proper diagnosis and treatment plan.

17. If Elisa is positive and PCR is negative what does it mean?

If Elisa is positive and PCR is negative, it means that the person has been exposed to the virus and has developed antibodies against it, but the virus is not currently present in their body at the time of the PCR test. 

This could happen if the person was infected in the past and has since recovered, or if the initial Elisa test was a false positive. 

However, it's important to note that the accuracy of both Elisa and PCR tests can vary, so additional testing and consultation with a medical professional may be necessary to confirm the results.

18. What is the principle of Blood urea Nitrogen Test test?

The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test is a common laboratory test used to measure the amount of urea nitrogen in the blood. Urea is a waste product formed in the liver when the body breaks down proteins, and it is excreted from the body through the kidneys.

The principle of the BUN test is based on the fact that urea nitrogen is present in the blood in a relatively constant ratio to the level of urea in the urine. The test measures the amount of nitrogen in the blood that comes from urea. A blood sample is taken and the level of urea nitrogen is measured in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) of blood.

The BUN test is often used to help diagnose kidney problems, as the kidneys are responsible for filtering urea and other waste products from the blood. A high BUN level may indicate that the kidneys are not functioning properly, while a low BUN level may indicate liver disease or malnutrition. 

However, it is important to note that a high BUN level can also be caused by other factors, such as dehydration, heart failure, or gastrointestinal bleeding, so the test is typically used in conjunction with other tests to make a diagnosis.

19. What are the parasites: found in sputum?

There are several parasites that can be found in sputum, including:

1. Lung flukes: These are parasitic flatworms that can infect the lungs and cause symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and shortness of breath.

2. Ascaris lumbricoides: This is a type of roundworm that can infect the lungs and cause symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and fever.

3. Strongyloides stercoralis: This is a type of roundworm that can infect the lungs and cause symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.

4. Cryptosporidium parvum: This is a parasitic protozoan that can infect the lungs and cause symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and shortness of breath.

5. Toxoplasma gondii: This is a parasitic protozoan that can infect the lungs and cause symptoms such as coughing, chest pain, and fever.

It's important to note that finding parasites in sputum is not common and usually indicates a serious infection. If you suspect you may have a parasitic infection, you should seek medical attention from a qualified healthcare provider.

20. What is the meaning of DNA? 

DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid. It is a molecule that carries genetic information and instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all living organisms. 

DNA is composed of four different nucleotides: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T), and the sequence of these nucleotides determines the genetic code that is unique to each individual. 

DNA is located in the nucleus of cells and is responsible for passing on genetic traits from one generation to the next through the process of replication and cell division.

21. How do we prepare 100% normal saline?

It is not possible to prepare 100% normal saline because the term "normal saline" refers to a specific concentration of salt in water that is isotonic to human body fluids, which is 0.9% NaCl (sodium chloride) solution.

However, if you need to prepare a solution of 0.9% NaCl, you can follow these steps:

Measure out the desired amount of sterile water. This can be done using a graduated cylinder or a volumetric flask.

Weigh out the appropriate amount of NaCl (sodium chloride) using a balance or scale.

Dissolve the NaCl in the sterile water, stirring until it is completely dissolved.

Check the final solution's concentration using a refractometer, which measures the solution's refractive index.

It is important to note that the preparation of any solution intended for medical use should be done in a sterile environment using sterile equipment to avoid contamination.

22. What is the end point of decalcification? 

The endpoint of decalcification refers to the point at which all the calcium ions have been removed from the tissue sample being decalcified.

Decalcification is a process used to remove calcium deposits from hard tissues, such as bone or teeth, in order to prepare the tissue for further study or processing. The endpoint is typically determined by monitoring the progress of decalcification using periodic testing methods such as X-ray, histological staining, or chemical indicators.

Once the endpoint is reached, the tissue is considered fully decalcified, and it can be processed for further analysis or embedding in paraffin for histological sectioning. It is important to note that over-decalcification can cause tissue damage or loss of antigenicity, so it is crucial to monitor the process carefully to ensure that the endpoint is not exceeded.

23. What if the pH of urine is 7.0, is it acidic, alkaline or neutral?

If the pH of urine is 7.0, it is neutral.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being the midpoint that represents a neutral pH. A pH value below 7.0 indicates acidity, while a pH value above 7.0 indicates alkalinity.

Normally, the pH of urine in healthy individuals ranges from 4.5 to 8.0, with an average of around 6.0. However, the pH of urine can vary depending on factors such as diet, medication use, and certain medical conditions.

In general, a pH of 7.0 is within the normal range and is not usually a cause for concern. However, if a person's urine pH consistently falls outside the normal range, it may indicate an underlying medical issue that requires further evaluation and treatment.

24. What are epithelial cells in Urine? 

Epithelial cells are cells that line the surfaces of the body, including the urinary tract. 

When present in urine, they may indicate inflammation or irritation of the urinary tract, or contamination of the urine sample with cells from the genital area. 

The presence and number of epithelial cells in urine can be used to help diagnose and monitor urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and other conditions.