Psychology and sociology for GNM nursing psychology - First year - Karnataka state Chapter 3: Cognitive Processes.

Psychology and sociology for GNM nursing psychology - First year - Karnataka state 

Chapter 3: Cognitive Processes.

Contents:

• Attention: Types, determinants, habits and attention, duration and degree of attention process.

• Perception: Meaning, principles, factors affecting, errors in perception.

• Learning: Nature, types, theories of learning, laws of learning, learner and learning process, factors influencing, transfer of learning, study habits.

• Memory: Meaning and nature, types, factors influencing. development theories, forgetting, methods of improving memory.

• Thinking: Meaning, types and levels, stages of development. relationship with language and communication.

• Intelligence: Meaning and definition, intelligence quotient distribution, types, mental ability, development of intelligent behaviour, individual differences in intelligence, intelligence tests, theories of intelligence.

• Aptitude: Concept, types, individual differences and variability. • Psychometric assessment of cognitive processes

• Alterations in cognitive processes

• Applications
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|| Learning ||

¶ Meaning:  Learning is the modification of human behaviour through experience.

¶ Nature of Learning (Characteristics of learning)

• Modification of human behaviour.
• Growth through experience.
• Adjustment to a situation.
• It is universal.
• It is self- active process.
• It is goal oriented.
• It is a problem solving process.

¶ Types of Learning:

• Verbal learning.
• Motor learning. (writing, dancing, eating, etc).
• Concept learning.
• Problem solving learning.
• Serial learning.
• Associate learning.

¶ Theories of learning:

• Trial and Error learning - Thorndike experiments on cats

• Classical conditioned theory/Reinforcement theory -  Pavlov experiments on dogs

• Operant conditioned theory: Skinner Experiments on Rats

• In sight learning theory - kohler experiments on Chimpanzees
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|| Memory (Remembering) ||

¶ Meaning: Memory is the special ability of the mind to store information, which had happened earlier.

Thus, storage of information in the mind is called as memory (or) Remember

¶ Types of memory:

1. Sensory memory - ( 1/2 second - 2-5 seconds - Immediate memory)

2. Short-term memory (15-20 seconds - working memory

3. Long-term memory (per day/week/month/year - permanent memory or memory on life long.

¶ Factors influencing (on) Affecting memory.

1. Accurate observation.

2. Attention.

3. Sense perception.

4. Motivation.

5. Interest

¶ Methods to improve memory:

1. Proper learning method.
2. Menimonicks (memory tricks).

1. Proper learning method:

• The whole method.

• The part method.

• The whole and part method.

• The unspaced method.

• The Spaced method.

• The meditation method.

2. Menimonicks:

• Rhyming system.

• Make a story.

• Rehearsal

• Self feed-back.

• Review .... Etc
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|| Forgetting (loss of memony) ||

¶ Meaning: Forgetting is the failure of recalling an idea or group of ideas.

According to munn - Forgetting is a permanent (or) temporary loss of ability to re-call.

¶ Types of Forgetting:

1. Natural forgetting (lapse of time).

2. Ab-normal forgetting

3 Specific forgetting.

4. Psychological forgetting

5. Biological forgetting

¶ Theories of forgetting:

1. The trace decay theory. (Lapse of time).

2. The interference theory. (flashing earlier or later)

3. The Repression theory. (Deliberate).

4. The consolidation theory. (Due to shock).
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|| Thinking ||

¶ Meaning: Thinking is a higher mental activity.
Thinking usually takes place when an individual facing a problem (or) un-familiar Situation

¶ Tools of thinking (levels of thinking/elements of  thinking/instrument of thinking)

1. Image level thinking

2. Concept level thinking

3. Symbol and signs

4. Logical level thinking. (Flexible thinking/Scientific thinking)

5. Language thinking

¶ Creative thinking: Creative thinking aims for Something new.

¶ Steps For Problem solving thinking:

1. Recognising the problem

2. Defining the problem.

3. Collecting relevant data.

4. Formulation of Hypothesis (Guessing).

5. Verification.

6. Solution and conclusions.

¶ Errors in thinking:

1. Emotion.

2. Wrong perception.

3. Fear of failure.

4. Superstitious belief

5. Lack of information.

5. Guessing.
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|| Attention ||

¶ Meaning: Attention is a selective mental activity that is selecting one stimulus for observation.

¶ Types of attention

1. Involuntory attention.

2. Voluntary attention

3. Division (or) span of attention.

4. Duration of Attention - (shifting attention)

5. Distraction of attention.

¶ Determinants of Attention:

1. Internal factor - Interest, habit, Attitude, mood....

2. External factor - Loud noise, colourful picture...
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|| Perception (observation) ||

¶ Meaning: Notice some thing through our sense organ is perception.

¶ Law of perception/principle of perception:

1. Principle of figure ground relationship (background)

2. Stimulus (situation).

¶ Groping of Stimulus:

1. Proximity.

2. Closer.

3. Similarity.

4. Continuity.

¶ Factors influencing perception:

• Past experience.

• Personal interest

• Memory

• Mind set (mood/mental set)

• Belief

¶ Factors affecting perception:

• Poor sense organ.

• Weak stimuli.

• Too many stimuli (Many things)

• Wrong perception.

• Illness.
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|| Perceptual Abnormalities ||

1. Illusion

2. Hallucination.

¶ Illusion:

• Wrong interpretation of a stimulus

Ex- We imagine rope as snake in the dark

¶ Hallucination:-

Ex: what one sees and hears, others cannot. 

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|| Thinking ||

¶ DEFINITION OF THINKING

Thinking is an activity concerning ideas, symbolic in character initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing, involving some trial & error but under the directing influence of that problem & ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem. (Warren)

• Thinking is the organization & reorganization of current learning in the present circumstances with the help of learning & past experiences.(Vinacke - 1968)

• Thinking is the perceptual relationship which provides for the solution of the problem. (Maier)

¶ NATURE OF THINKING 

✓ It is essentially a cognitive activity.

✓ It is always directed to achieve some end or purpose.

✓ It is described as a problem-solving behavior.

✓ It is a symbolic activity.

✓ It is mental exploration instead of motor exploration.

✓ It can shift very rapidly.

✓ It is internal activity.

¶ TYPES OF THINKING

1. Perceptual or concrete thinking

2. Conceptual or abstract thinking

3. Creative thinking

4. Logical thinking/ reasoning

5. Problem solving

6. Convergent Vs Divergent thinking

1. Perceptual or Concrete thinking

• It is based on perception.

• Perception is the process of interpretation of sensation according to one's experience. the

• It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried over perception of actual or concrete & events.

• It is one-dimensional & literal thinking which has limited use of metaphor without understanding nuances of meaning.

• Being the simplest form of thinking, small children are mostly benefitted by this type of thinking.

2. Conceptual Or Abstract thinking

• It does not require the perception of actual objects or events.

• It is also called abstract thinking as it makes the use of concepts or abstract ideas. It is superior to perceptual thinking's as it economizes efforts in understanding & helps in discovery & invention.

• It is ability to appreciate nuances of meaning. 

• It is multidimensional thinking with ability to use metaphors & hypotheses appropriately.

• Language plays an important part in conceptual thinking.

3. Creative thinking

• It refers to the ability for original thinking, to create or discover something new.

• It is the ability to integrate the various elements of the situation into a harmonious whole to create something novel.

• In other words, cognitive activity directed towards some creative work refers to creative thinking.

• Creative thinkers are great boons to the society as they enrich the knowledge of mankind.

• The creative thinker tries to achieve something new, to produce something original & something unique.

4. Logical thinking/Reasoning

• It is the cognitive process of looking for reasons for beliefs, conclusion, actions or feelings.

• It is the process of drawing conclusions based on evidence. It is form of controlled thinking in which the thought process is directed consciously towards the solutions of a problem.

• Reasoning is the highest form of thinking to find out causes & predict effects.

• An individual tries to solve a problem by incorporating two or more aspects of his past experience.

5. Problem solving

• It is a tool, skill & a process.

• It is a tool because it can help you solve an immediate problem or to achieve a goal.

• It is a skill because once you have learnt it you can use it repeatedly, like the ability to ride a bicycle, add numbers or speak a language.

• It is also a process because it involve taking a number of steps.

• You can engage in problem solving if you want to reach a goal & experience obstacles on the way.

• At the point at which you come up against a barrier you can engage in a problem solving process to help you achieve your goal.

6. Convergent Vs Divergent thinking

• Convergent thinking is cognitive processing of information around a common point, an attempt to bring thoughts from different directions into a union for common conclusion. 

• Divergent thinking starts from a common point & moves outward into a variety of perspectives. Eg; teachers use the content as a vehicle to prompt diverse or unique thinking among students rather than a common view.

¶ LEVELS OF THINKING

There are six levels of thinking/learning within cognitive hierarchy of behaviors;

1. Levell: Knowledge

2. Level 2: Comprehension

3. Level 3: Application

4. Level 4: Analysis

5. Level 5: Synthesis

6. Level 6: Evaluation

LEVEL1: KNOWLEDGE

• It involve recall of facts, principles & terms in the forms in which they are learned.

Key words: who, what, when, omit, where, which, choose, find, how, define, label, show, spell, list, match, name, relate, tell, recall, select.

Eg: When did happen...?

Which one happen.........? 

LEVEL 2: COMPREHENSION

• It represent the lowest form of understanding.

• The student knows what is being communicated without relating it to other material or seeing it in its fullest meaning.

• It demonstrates understanding of facts & ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions & stating main ideas.

Key words: Compare, contrast, demonstrate, interpret, explain, extend, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarize, show, classify.

Eg; What facts or ideas to show...?

Which is the best answer?

LEVEL 3: APPLICATION

• It involve the use of abstractions in concrete situation such as nursing or other specific situations.

• It is solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques & rules in a different way.

Key words: apply, build, choose, construct develop, interview, make use of, organize, experiment with plan, select, solve, utilize, model, identify.

Eg; What would result if.......? 

Can you make use of the facts to........?

LEVEL 4: ANALYSIS

• It is examining & breaking information into parts by identifying motives or causes; making inferences & finding evidence to support generalization.

Key words: analyze, categorize, compare, contrast, discover, dissect, divide, examine, inspect, simplify, survey, take part in, test for, distinguish, list, distinction, theme, relationships, function, motive, inferences, assumption, conclusion.

Eg: What are key parts or features of-------?

What motive is there.........? 

What evidence can you find......?

LEVEL 5: SYNTHESIS

• It is compiling information together in a different way by combining element in a new pattern or proposing alternative solution.

Key words: build, choose, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, estimate, formulate, imagine, invent, makeup, originate, plan, predict, propose, solve solution etc.

Eg; Can you propose an alternative? 

Can you formulate a theory for...? 

What facts can you compile......?

LEVEL 6: EVALUATION

• It is presenting & defending opinion by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria.

Key words: award, choose, conclude, criticize, decide, defend, determine, evaluate, judge, justify, measure, compare, mark, rate, recommend, prioritize, prove, disprove etc.

Eg; What is your opinion of.......? 

Would it be better if.......? 

How would you rate the.....?

¶ WAY TO IMPROVE THINKING

1. Keep yourself only with the current project:

• Clutter creates confusion.

• Get organized & work with a fresh canvas.

• On an average, we spend about 45 minutes a day looking for things eg; Where are my keys?

• Keep only the current project you are working on in front of you. 

2. Dedicate an hour of focus time to your most important task:

• Multi-tasking is highly over-rated & causes a loss of upto 40% efficiency.

• Get yourself one hour of focused seclusion to work on your important task.

• It will increase both productivity, creativity & morale.

3. Stir up your visual & creative talents with exposure to the arts:

• Go to a gallery, pick up an art book or spend time with nature.

4. Learn how to 'mind map':

• This is a best practice that allows you to visualize & map your projects, & strategies. It is also a life saving memory device that will help you remember more & organize your thinking.

5. Finally, on the hour-stop thinking

• When you have been working on something for more than an hour, you start loosing concentration & focus..

¶ THINKING IN RELATION TO LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

• Through the use of language, we can develop complex & abstract concepts. We learn through discussion the essential characteristics of concepts.

• Language like thought is directed to some purpose or goal. It has a unity & organization about the goal. 

• Language is the symbolic vehicle by which thought is carried.

• Language allow new learning to be communicated to others & saved for future generations.

• The use of language the communication of information.

• Language provides us with categories that we use to construct our view of people & events in the world around us.

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|| ALTERATIONS IN COGNITIVE PROCESSES ||

EX: Thinking

¶ Alterations in thinking:

1. Psychosis

2. delusion

1. Psychosis

• It is a mental disorder in which reality testing is not intact; behavior may violate gross social norms. 

• It is just opposite to neurosis in which reality testing is intact & behavior may not violate social norms.

• Many psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, mania, depression etc, come under psychosis.

• It include various disturbances in thinking.

2. Delusion

It is false, persistent, irrational belief not shared by persons of same age, race, education standard which cannot be altered by logical arguments.

Delusions are classified into: 

• Persecutory delusion

• Delusion of reference

• Delusion of influence

• Delusion of guilt

• Hypochondrical delusion

• Nihilistic delusion

• Delusion of grandeur

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|| Intelligence ||

• Intelligence is the ability to understand how to overcome difficulties independently. 

• According to Termon: Intelligence is the ability to convey abstract/scientific/logical/flexible thinking.

¶ Terman's classification of Intelligence:

1. Genius 2. Near Genius 3. Superior 4. Normal 5. Mental deficiency 6. Feeble mood (in firm or weak)

¶ According to IQ score (Intelligent Quotient) the intelligence is distributed as follows:

130 and above.....Genius

120 - 129....... Superior

110 - 119...... Bright

90 - 109....... Normal

80 - 89....... Dull

70 - 79...... Border line

Below 70..... Mentally deficient

¶ Measurement of IQ 

IQ= (MA/CA) X 100

Here MA means Mental age

CA means Chronological age (body age)

Ex: If a person's MA is 8 years and CA is 8 years, then IQ is 100.

IQ = (8/8) X 100 = 100

¶ Characteristics of an intelligent person:

• Display good vocabulary

• Display curiosity

• Takes good decision

• Determines how to achieve goals 

• Aware the nature of the world around him

• Ability to adjust with environment

• Time consciousness is high

¶ Individual difference in intelligence:

Causes: Heredity, Environment, Education, Social factors, Economical factors, Genetical factor, Age, Sex (male or female)

¶ Mental ability and nature of intelligence:

• Intelligence is the ability to adjust with needs.

• Intelligence is the abstract/scientific thinking

• Intelligence is the capacity of an individual

• Intelligence is the collection of mental powers

• Intelligence is the ability to learn from past experiences. 

¶ Development of Intelligence:

• It develops from birth to maturity

• It develops fully between the age 14-16 years

• It relates memory power

• It changes and develops

¶Assessment of Intelligence:

1. Binet Test of Intelligence

2. Terman's classification test

3. Wechsler adult intelligence test

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|| APTITUDE ||

¶ Meaning: The word aptitude is derived from the word "aptos" which means fitted for.

• Aptitudes are special skills, knowledge, and interests.

• An aptitude is not an inborn ability.

• It is a combination of in-born capacities and acquired abilities and skills etc.

¶ Definition

Aptitude is the real potential to develop ability with training and experience. It is the capacity of a person to achieve a specific skill.

Aptitude is a present condition which is indicative of an individual's potentialities for the future. - Traxler

¶ Characteristics of Aptitude

• An aptitude is a unique combination of abilities and personality characteristics

• An aptitude is not a unitary trait of human personality.

• An aptitude is largely acquired though in many cases. It is inborn in nature.

• Aptitude is a result of both heredity and environment. 

• It is of a specific nature, as it is not common to all the situations where a particular ability is used. 

• It is symptomatic or suggestive of one's ability for a particular work or job. 

• It is a present condition with a future reference to person's potential ability to do something.

¶ Classification/types of aptitudes

• Sensory Aptitude

It includes those activities related to the sensory capacities and abilities. Here the individual may have aptitude in the tasks involving the use of the sense of hearing, use of the sight, smell, taste or touch. 

• Mechanical Aptitude

In this type the individual has the specific abilities related to the mechanical abilities. Such persons may be a good mechanic, carpenter etc.

• Artistic Aptitudes

This may include special abilities towards music, dance, graphic art, photography, poetry, acting, debating, designing etc.

• Professional Aptitudes

This category includes the activities of various professions.

Examples for such aptitudes include clerical abilities, legal aptitude, teaching, pilot, banking, nursing etc. 

• Scholastic Aptitude

This type includes specific abilities related to the academic nature. It includes scientific aptitude, engineering aptitude, sports aptitude, medical aptitude etc.

¶ Measurement of Aptitude/Aptitude tests

The various tests to measure aptitude are given  below. 

• Mechanical aptitude tests

• Musical aptitude tests. 

• Art judgment tests 

• Professional aptitude tests

• Scholastic aptitude tests. 

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