Medical Knowledge 9

Medical Knowledge - 9

1. pH of Blood 7.4

The pH of blood is typically around 7.4, which is slightly alkaline. 

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH value below 7 is considered acidic, while a pH value above 7 is considered alkaline or basic. 

The human body works hard to maintain a steady pH balance in the blood and other bodily fluids, as even a slight deviation from the normal pH range can have a significant impact on health and bodily functions.

2. Normal Blood Pressure - 120/80 mm Hg

Normal blood pressure is typically considered to be around 120/80 mm Hg, where 120 mm Hg is the systolic pressure (the pressure when the heart contracts) and 80 mm Hg is the diastolic pressure (the pressure when the heart is at rest between beats). 

However, it's important to note that blood pressure can vary depending on factors such as age, gender, weight, and overall health. It's always a good idea to regularly check your blood pressure and consult with a healthcare professional if you have any concerns.

3. Largest artery - Aorta

The largest artery in the human body is the aorta. 

It is the main artery that originates from the left ventricle of the heart and extends down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller arteries known as the iliac arteries. 

The aorta is responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body. 

It is approximately an inch in diameter and can withstand high blood pressure due to its elasticity and thickness of its walls.

3. Number of heart champers: 4

The human heart has four chambers. 

The upper two chambers are called atria (singular: atrium), and the lower two chambers are called ventricles. 

The right atrium and the left atrium are separated by a thin wall called the interatrial septum, while the right ventricle and the left ventricle are separated by a thick muscular wall called the interventricular septum. 

The heart's four chambers work together to pump oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body and deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs for oxygenation.

4. Number of heart champers: 4

The human heart has four chambers. 

The upper two chambers are called atria (singular: atrium), and the lower two chambers are called ventricles. 

The right atrium and the left atrium are separated by a thin wall called the interatrial septum, while the right ventricle and the left ventricle are separated by a thick muscular wall called the interventricular septum. 

The heart's four chambers work together to pump oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body and deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs for oxygenation.
5. What is the central nervous system in your body?

The central nervous system (CNS) is a complex network of organs that includes the brain and spinal cord. 

It serves as the control center of the body, responsible for processing and coordinating information received from the peripheral nervous system. 

The brain, located in the cranial cavity, interprets sensory inputs, initiates motor responses, and regulates higher cognitive functions. 

The spinal cord, running through the vertebral column, acts as a conduit for transmitting signals between the brain and the rest of the body. 

The CNS plays a vital role in regulating bodily functions, facilitating movement, maintaining homeostasis, and enabling cognitive processes, emotions, and memory formation.

6. To all the brainiacs out there, have you ever wondered how your brain works?

The human brain is a complex and remarkable organ that serves as the command center of the central nervous system. It is responsible for controlling our thoughts, emotions, movements, and bodily functions. 

Comprising billions of interconnected nerve cells called neurons, the brain is divided into various regions, each with specific functions. The cerebral cortex, the outermost layer, is involved in higher cognitive processes such as perception, memory, language, and reasoning. The brainstem regulates essential functions like breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, while the limbic system plays a role in emotions and memory formation.

Neurons communicate through electrical and chemical signals. When a neuron receives a signal, it generates an electrical impulse that travels along its length and releases neurotransmitters at synapses, the junctions between neurons. This intricate network of communication allows for complex information processing and coordination.

The brain's plasticity enables it to change and adapt throughout life. It can form new connections, reorganize its structure, and adjust its function in response to experiences, learning, and development. This capacity underlies our ability to acquire new skills, recover from brain injuries, and adapt to changing environments.

Despite remarkable progress, the brain remains largely a mystery, with much more to discover. Research in neuroscience aims to unravel its intricate mechanisms, studying topics like consciousness, perception, and the underlying causes of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Understanding the human brain is crucial for advancing medicine, psychology, and overall human well-being. Through continued research and technological advancements, scientists strive to unlock its secrets and develop treatments for brain-related conditions, ultimately improving our understanding of ourselves and enhancing the quality of life for individuals worldwide.

7. HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is the mechanical and chemical break down of food  in which complex and non-diffuseable food are converted into diffusible and simple.

1.Digestion is a mechanical and chemical break down of large food contents into smaller particles that are easy to be absorbed. 

Absorption is transferring the digested molecules across the gastrointestinal tract to the blood stream.

2.Digestion starts from the mouth, but the absorption starts from the stomach.

3.Digestion takes place inside the intestinal tract, but the absorption happens in the line of the intestine.

4.Digestion needs enzymes, but absorption does not need enzymes.

5.Digestion is always an active process and needs energy, but some of the absorption mechanisms do not need energy.

6.Digestion changes the chemical and the mechanical structure of the food, whereas absorption does not.

7.Absorption relates with blood, while digestion does not.

8.Most of the digestion takes place at duodenum, whereas absorption occurs mainly at ileum and jejunum.

7. The function of the liver.

1. Liver is the main organ of Bile production. Bile contains bile pigment and salts. Bile pigments are Bilirubin (yellow) and biliverdin (green) used in coloration of bile and faeces. 

Salts of Sodium and Potassium bicarbonate neutralize acids. Sodium glycocholate and taurocholate help in emulsification.

2. Deamination:  NH2 amino group is removed from amino acid resulting in the production of ammonia. Ammonia is converted into urea.

3. Glycogenesis: it is conversion of excess glucose into glycogen with the help of insulin.

4. Glycogenolysis:  conversion of glycogen into glucose by liver cells with the help of glucagon.

5. Lipogenesis: conversion of excess glucose and amino acid into fats.

6. Gluconeogenesis: formation of glucose or glycogen from non carbohydrate sources (amino acid, fatty acid and glycerol). It also occurs in kidney and muscle.

7. Detoxification: converts toxic substance into harmless substance. 
e.g. harmful prussic acid is neutralized and rendered harmless.

8. The role of bile in the digestion of fat.

Bile  are bio-surfactants present in the gastrointestinal tract  that play a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. 

The importance of Bile for controlled release and transport of lipid soluble nutrients and drugs has recently stimulated scientific interest in these physiological compounds. 

Bile is so-called facial amphiphiles showing a molecular structure that is very distinct from classical surfactants. 

This peculiar molecular structure facilitates the formation of dynamic aggregates able to solubilise and transport lipid soluble compounds. 

Bile adsorbs onto fat droplets and can remove other materials such as proteins, emulsifiers and lipolysis products from the lipid surface.

9. The function of bile juice/
The function of food?

Food provides our bodies with what they need to:

1. Stay alive, be active, move and work;
2. Build new cells and tissues for growth;
3. Stay healthy and heal themselves;
4. Prevent and fight infections.

10. The function of the stomach?

The stomach receives food from the esophagus. 

As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach through a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter. 

The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. Ridges of muscle tissue called rugae line the stomach. 

The stomach muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance digestion. 

The pyloric sphincter is a muscular valve that opens to allow food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

11. The role of saliva.

Saliva is a clear, watery liquid made by several glands in your mouth area.

Saliva is an important part of a healthy body. It is mostly made of water. 

But saliva also contains important substances that your body needs to digest food and keep your teeth.

Saliva is important because it

1. Keeps your mouth moist and comfortable
2. Helps you chew, taste, and swallow
3. Fights germs in your mouth and prevents bad breath
4. Has proteins and minerals that protect tooth enamel and prevent tooth decay and gum disease
5. Helps keep dentures securely in place

12. How does the coagulation of milk take place in the stomach?

The enzyme rennin is a milk coagulating enzyme. It  hydrolysis milk protein casein into insoluble calcium paracaseinate in the presence of Ca++ ions. 

This is the curd of milk which can be retained in the stomach for a long time and which is later acted upon by pepsin converting it into amino acids. 

Renin is important to infants in which milk is the main diet. It is said to be into amino acid.

13. What is absorption? 

Discuss the absorptive processes of the digested foodstuff.

The two primary roles of the digestive process are absorption and secretion. 

The role of absorption in the digestive system is vital to the body because without it, the vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and other nutrients we consume could not be used. 

Absorption is the process by which the nutrients in food are passed on to the blood. The majority of absorption occurs in the small intestine, the digestive tract’s primary organ.

After food passes through the stomach to the small intestines, it is turned into energy for the body to use. 

Absorption is made possible by the villi, small bristle-like protrusions in the mucosa. The mucosa is the moist tissue lining certain parts of the body’s passages and organs. The villi acts as channels through which the nutrients derived from digested foods can pass into the bloodstream and be carried to the rest of the body. 

The actual absorption process is slightly different for each type of nutrient.

Absorption takes place in the ileum mainly. For this, the internal lining of the ileum is provided with a large number of finger like projections called villi. The villi increases the absorptive surface. These are provided with blood vessels and lymph. Glucose, amino acids etc are absorbed into the blood vessel. Blood takes them to the liver for storage of glucose. The fatty acids and glycerol come into the lymph which is taken into adipose tissue for storage.

14. Write the basic feature of the digestive system in mammals. 

The mammalian digestive system consists of the alimentary canal ( complete digestive tract) and various accessory glands that secret digestive juices into the canal through the ducts.  

The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and basic nutrients to feed the entire body. 

Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal tract. The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands. 

Alimentary canal is complete and has well defined regions. It is concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion of waste material.

15. How do you account for pancreas as an endocrine gland? Discuss the function of pancreatic juice.

The pancreas is an endocrine organ that lies in the abdomen, specifically the upper left abdomen. It is found behind the stomach, with the head of the pancreas surrounded by the duodenum. 

The pancreas is about 15cm (6 in) long. Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into a head, which rests within the concavity of the duodenum, a body lying behind the base of the stomach, and a tail, which ends abutting the spleen. 

The neck of the pancreas lies between the body and head, and is in front of the superior mesenteric artery and vein. 

The head of the pancreas surrounds these two vessels, and a small uncinate process emerges from the lower part of the head, lying behind the superior mesenteric artery. 

The pancreas is a secretory structure with an internal hormonal role (endocrine) and an external digestive role (exocrine). 

It has two main ducts, the main pancreatic duct, and the accessory pancreatic duct. 

These drain enzymes through the ampulla of Vater into the duodenum.

Function of Pancreatic Juice:

1. Pancreatic fluid or juice contains digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine where they help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats) in the chyme.

2. Pancreatic fluid is alkaline 
in nature due to the high concentration of bicarbonate ions that makes it useful in neutralizing the acidic gastric acid, allowing for effective enzymic action.

3. Pancreatic juice secretion is regulated by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. It is produced by the walls of the duodenum upon detection of acid food, proteins, fats, and vitamins.
16. Tongue and its functions

It is a highly muscular organ attached to the floor of the buccal cavity by a fold called frenulum. The upper surface is provided with numerous papillae containing taste buds. 
The taste buds are sensitive to the taste of food. 

Types of papillae:

1. Filliform- smallest, most numerous, conical, mostly found at center of tongue, white in color.

2. Fungiform - less in no. red and rounded, found at tip and margin of tongue.

3. Vallate papillae- large in size, about 5 to 12 in no. arranged in inverted v shape at the base of tongue.

4. Foliate – leaf like, not developed in man, found at sides of tongue.

Tip of tongue – sweet
Sides of tongue – sour
Posterior end of tongue – bitter.

▪️Functions of tongue:

1.Detects taste
2.Helps in chewing, mix saliva
3.Aids in swallowing
4.Cleans teeth and gum
5.Plays role in speech

17. Structures and functions of human teeth 

Human beings and most other mammals are heterodont. They have different types of teeth with different functions.

1. Incisors -help to cut large piece into small pieces

2. Canines - help in tearing flesh

3. Premolars – help in mastication

4. Molars – help in mastication

They are diphyodont. They have two sets of teeth, milk teeth and permanent teeth.

Dental formula – it is expression of number and type of teeth on right or left side (one side) of jaw.
• Dental formula of milk teeth i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 0/0 m2/2 5x2/5x2 = 20
• Dental formula of permanent teeth i 2/2 c1/1 pm 2/2 m 3/3 8x2/8x2 = 32

i  stands for incisor
c  stands for canine
pm  stands for premolar
m   stands for molar

The numerator is for number of teeth in the upper jaw and 
The denominator is for number of teeth in the lower jaw

Milk teeth start to drop out at about age of 5 or 6. The 3rd molar teeth are also known as wisdom teeth and appear at about the age of 17 to 21. 

Teeth in females appear earlier than in males.

Structure of tooth:  It has 3 regions.
            
1. Crown – Part which project above gum
2. Neck - Part surrounded by gum
3. Root - Part embedded in bone, the incisor and canine and lower premolar have one root, upper premolar and lower molar have 2 roots and upper molar have 3 roots.

Tooth consists of enamel which is the hardest part of human body. It covers the dentine of crown. 

Dentine has many canaliculi that pass radially from the pulp cavity. Cement covers root of tooth. Periodontal membrane covers cement and fixes tooth in socket (thecodont).

Inside tooth, there is pulp cavity containing mass of cells, blood vessels and nerve constitute pulp. 

It is for growth of tooth. Dentine forming odontoblast and enamel forming ameloblast cells are also present.

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